The short version of tuftsin fits in a sentence. The long version — which is the one that helps — is below.
Reviewed 2026-01-04. Anything still debated is marked as such rather than presented as settled.
Development took place at the Institute of Molecular Genetics of the Russian Academy of Sciences, where a series of short peptides were designed in the 1980s and 1990s. Selank was selected from variants of tuftsin that showed resistance to plasma peptidases. Russian regulatory approval covers it as an anxiolytic agent given intranasally. Outside that market the compound is normally handled as a research chemical rather than a medicine, and no widely recognised international pharmacopoeial monograph exists. The name Selank is a coined trade designation rather than a systematic chemical name.
Enzymatic stability motivates the extra three residues at the carboxyl end. Native tuftsin is cleaved quickly by circulating aminopeptidases and carboxypeptidases, which limits its duration of action and its usefulness as a tool compound. Extending the chain with proline-rich segments is a common design tactic because proline constrains the backbone and slows proteolysis. The same Pro-Gly-Pro motif appears in other Russian-developed peptides of the era. Whether the full seven-residue chain is required for activity, or whether it acts mainly as a prodrug releasing tuftsin, remains unresolved.
Lyophilised material kept dry at minus 20 degrees Celsius or colder is the most stable form, and suppliers commonly state a shelf life of two years or more under those conditions. Once dissolved, degradation accelerates through hydrolysis and deamidation, particularly at alkaline pH or elevated temperature. Working solutions are usually divided into single-use aliquots to avoid repeated freeze-thaw cycles. The choice of reconstitution solvent affects both stability and the ionic strength of the final preparation.
Reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection near 214 nanometres is the standard purity method. Mass spectrometry, typically electrospray ionisation, confirms identity through the expected mass-to-charge pattern. Amino acid analysis can verify composition independently. Chiral purity requires separate techniques such as derivatisation followed by chromatographic separation, and such data are rarely reported for research-grade material.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Chemical class | Synthetic heptapeptide | Tuftsin analogue with a C-terminal Pro-Gly-Pro tail |
| Amino acid sequence | Thr-Lys-Pro-Arg-Pro-Gly-Pro | Abbreviated TKPRPGP in most catalogues |
| Molecular mass | About 752 Da | Value for the free peptide |
| Solubility | Freely soluble in water | Aqueous solutions are kept cold and used promptly |
| Typical storage | -20 °C, dry, protected from light | Applies to the lyophilised powder before reconstitution |
Animal studies have examined behaviour in tests of anxiety, memory retention and stress response, and several report changes in neurotrophic or neurotransmitter-related markers. The human evidence base is much smaller, consisting mainly of short trials conducted in Russia with limited reporting in English-language journals. Sample sizes are modest and outcome measures vary between studies, so the findings are best described as preliminary. Independent replication under modern trial standards has not been widely reported.
Outside its country of origin the compound is generally handled as a research chemical rather than an approved medicine. No regulatory approval from the United States Food and Drug Administration or the European Medicines Agency has been granted for human use. Identity and purity are normally checked by reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography, with mass spectrometry used to confirm the molecular mass. Lyophilised material is stored cold and desiccated, and repeated freeze-thaw cycles are avoided.
Published work on this peptide almost always uses intranasal delivery, with drops or a spray applied to the nasal mucosa. Some animal experiments have used subcutaneous or intraperitoneal injection, and a smaller number have compared routes directly. Oral administration is not a focus of the literature, because short peptides of this size are broken down by digestive enzymes and cross intestinal barriers poorly. How much of an intranasal dose reaches the bloodstream intact in humans remains an open question.
Clinical evidence comes mainly from small studies conducted in Russia, several of which were open-label or lacked robust blinding. Reported outcomes include lower anxiety scores, changes in attention measures, and effects on asthenic states following illness. Sample sizes are typically in the tens of participants, and independent replication outside the region is scarce. Reviews published in English generally note the limited methodological quality of the underlying trials. Whether the compound produces clinically meaningful effects under rigorous conditions remains unresolved.
Proposed mechanisms center on modulation of the GABA system, but no single molecular target has been confirmed. Rodent studies report changes in GABA-A receptor expression and in the turnover of serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine in several brain regions. Increases in brain-derived neurotrophic factor and its receptor have also been described after repeated administration. These findings come largely from animal models, and the degree to which they describe human neurochemistry remains an open question. The mechanism is best characterized as multi-system and not fully resolved.
Pharmacokinetic data are limited. Like most short peptides, Selank is vulnerable to plasma and tissue peptidases, and its measured half-life in circulation is short, on a minutes scale. The Pro-Gly-Pro tail slows this degradation but does not eliminate it. Intranasal administration is the route described in most reports, with absorption through the nasal mucosa and a hypothesized path into the central nervous system that avoids the blood-brain barrier. Direct measurements of human brain exposure are unavailable, so distribution claims rest on inference from animal work.
Laboratory work relies on standard behavioral paradigms. Rodents are tested in the elevated plus maze, open field, and passive avoidance tasks, with outcomes compared against diazepam or vehicle controls. Intranasal dosing is used most often because it bypasses first-pass metabolism, though intraperitoneal and intravenous routes also appear in published protocols. Biochemical endpoints include tissue BDNF concentrations, cytokine levels, and monoamine metabolites. Human data are limited to small Russian trials reporting reduced anxiety scores; most were not prospectively registered, and few employed independent outcome assessment.
Measuring peptide exposure inside the brain is technically difficult. Selank is degraded rapidly in plasma, and assays must separate intact peptide from fragments, which favors targeted mass spectrometry over immunoassays alone. Reported half-lives are short, on the order of minutes, so effects observed hours later are attributed to downstream signaling rather than to the parent compound. Blood-brain barrier permeability is debated and rarely quantified directly. Gaps include absent dose-response characterization, inconsistent reporting of purity, and almost no pharmacokinetic data from human participants.
Theodoros "Theo" Angelopoulos (Greek: Θεόδωρος Αγγελόπουλος; 27 April 1935 – 24 January 2012) was a Greek filmmaker, screenwriter and film producer. He dominated the Greek art film industry from 1975 on, and Angelopoulos was one of the most influential and widely respected filmmakers in the world. He started making films in 1967. In the 1970s he made a series of political films about modern Greece. Angelopoulos' films, described by Martin Scorsese as those of "a masterful filmmaker", are characterized by slight movement and distance changes, long takes, and complex, carefully composed scenes. His cinematic method is often described as "sweeping" and "hypnotic." Angelopoulos has said that in his shots, “time becomes space and space becomes time.” The pauses between action or music are important to creating the total effect. In 1998 his film Eternity and a Day went on to win the Palme d'Or at the 51st edition of the Cannes Film Festival, and his films have been shown at many of the world's esteemed film festivals.
It must be made apparent to the Soviet Government that our strength will be sufficient to repel any attack and sufficient to defeat the USSR decisively if a war should start. The prospect of defeat is the only sure means of deterring the Soviet Union. In the early Cold War, US Secretary of State Dean Acheson combined the concepts of preponderance and bandwagoning. As he put it, the United States was going to have to be "the locomotive at the head of mankind," while the rest of the world was going to be "the caboose." While arguing that equilibrium was essential to justice, Reinhold Niebuhr asserted that "nothing but the preponderance of power in the non-Communist world can preserve the peace." Melvyn Leffler describes the US strategy throughout the Cold War as a strategy of preponderance. In its last year, he summarized: Backed by strategic preponderance, the United States integrated and rearmed the Eurasian industrial areas, shored up the Eurasian periphery and rolled back the Iron Curtain. Already during the Cold War, some scholars stressed that the pattern accords the preponderance of power rather than balance of power. The balance of power presupposes such a distribution of power in the system that no single state is preponderant. In this sense, during the period 1945–1965 if "there was any threat to the general balance of power [...] it was from the United States rather than from the Soviet Union that this came." Stephen Walt observed in the 1980s that most states, including all developed states, ally with, rather than balance against, the preponderant power.
== Economy == The gross domestic product (GDP) of the state was 229.5 billion euros in 2018, accounting for 8.7% of German economic output. GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power was 33,700 euros or 112% of the EU27 average in the same year. The GDP per employee was 100% of the EU average. Agriculture, strongly weighted towards the livestock sector, has always been a very important economic factor in the state. The north and northwest of Lower Saxony are mainly made up of coarse sandy soil that makes crop farming difficult and therefore grassland and cattle farming are more prevalent in those areas. Lower Saxony is home, in 2017, to one in five of Germany's cattle, one in three of the country's pigs, and 50% of its hens. Wheat, potatoes, rye, and oats are among the state's present-day arable crops. Towards the south and southeast, extensive loess layers in the soil left behind by the last ice age allow high-yield crop farming. One of the principal crops there is sugar beet. Consequently, the Land has a big food industry, mainly organised in small and medium-sized enterprises (SME). Big players are Deutsches Milchkontor and PHW Group (biggest German poultry farmer and producer). Mining has also been an important source of income in Lower Saxony for centuries. Silver ore became a foundation of notable economic prosperity in the Harz Mountains as early as the 12th century, while iron mining in the Salzgitter area and salt mining in various areas of the state became another important economic backbone.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
1946 in Cairo), historian, academic, scholar, author of over fifteen books, essayist, Emeritus Professor of Comparative European History at Queen Mary, University of London . George Sassoon (30 October 1936 – 8 March 2006), British scientist, electronic engineer, linguist, translator and science fiction author of Iraqi Jewish Mizrahi Jewish origin; author of The Manna-Machine (1978) and The Kabbalah Decoded (1978). Siegfried Sassoon, writer and WW1 poet, of Iraqi Jewish Mizrahi Jewish origin. Charles Saatchi (Arabic: تشارلز ساعتجي; born 9 June 1943); author of numerous books, periodicals, journals and monographs on art and culture, Mizrahi Jewish Iraqi-Jewish British businessman and co-founder, with brother Maurice, of advertising agency Saatchi & Saatchi, the world's largest advertising agency; later formed a new agency called M&C Saatchi; also known for his art collection and for owning Saatchi Gallery, and for sponsorship of the Young British Artists (YBAs), including Damien Hirst and Tracey Emin.Successful campaigns included Silk Cut's advertisements and those for Conservative Party's 1979 general election victory – led by Margaret Thatcher through the slogan "Labour Isn't Working". Other clients included British Airways. In the Sunday Times Rich List 2009 ranking of the wealthiest people in the UK, was grouped with brother Maurice, with estimated fortune of £120 million.
=== Bacteria === Necrotizing fasciitis is classified into four groups based on the type of bacteria causing the infection. This classification system was first described by Giuliano and his colleagues in 1977. Type I infection: This is the most common type of infection, and accounts for 70–80% of cases. It is caused by a mixture of bacterial types, usually in the abdominal or groin areas. These bacterial species include:
== Product life cycle approach in validation == Validation process efforts must account for the complete product life cycle, including developmental procedures adapted for qualification of a drug product commencing with its research and development phase, rationale for adapting a best fit formula which represents the relationship between required outputs and specified inputs, and procedure for manufacturing. Each step is required to be justified and monitored in order to provide a good quality food and drug product. The FDA emphasizes the product life cycle approach in its evaluation of manufacturer regulatory compliance as well.
The production was held at the Eugene O'Neill Theatre in New York City to raise money for the American Foundation for Equal Rights. Freeman had a lead role in the 2012 drama The Magic of Belle Isle, as an alcoholic novelist trying to write again. The film fared poorly with critics, gaining only a 29% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes. Lastly in 2012, Freeman reprised his role as Lucius Fox for the third time in The Dark Knight Rises. A number of box office hits were released in 2013. Freeman appeared in the action-thriller Olympus Has Fallen, the first installment in what would become the Has Fallen film series; he portrays Speaker of the House Allan Trumbull. The San Francisco Chronicle critic gave Olympus Has Fallen 3 out of 4 stars and opined that Freeman gave an amicable supporting performance. He then starred in the science fiction drama Oblivion, with co-star Tom Cruise, as veteran soldier Malcolm Beech, and appeared in the thriller Now You See Me, as an ex-magician. Lastly, he played a retiree in Last Vegas, with co-stars Michael Douglas, Robert De Niro, Kevin Kline, and Mary Steenburgen. Filmed in Las Vegas and Atlanta, Last Vegas was praised for its cast's chemistry, and one critic thought Freeman brought the most amusement. In 2014, Freeman voiced the character Vitruvius in The Lego Movie, a commercially successful 3D animation. He starred in Transcendence, a science fiction thriller directed by Wally Pfister in his directorial debut, in which Freeman plays scientist Joseph Tagger. Critic reviews of the film were generally mixed, according to Metacritic.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
=== Legal status === The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) granted the application for tirzepatide priority review designation. Mounjaro was approved for medical use in the US in 2022. In July 2022, the Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use of the European Medicines Agency adopted a positive opinion, recommending granting a marketing authorization for the medicinal product Mounjaro, intended for the treatment of type 2 diabetes. Tirzepatide was approved for medical use in the European Union in September 2022. In December 2024, the FDA approved tirzepatide (Zepbound) as the first medication to be used in the treatment of moderate to severe obstructive sleep apnea. The FDA granted the application for tirzepatide (Zepbound) fast track, priority review, and breakthrough therapy designations for the treatment of moderate to severe obstructive sleep apnea. The FDA granted the approval of Zepbound to Eli Lilly. Tirzepatide was approved for treatment of type 2 diabetes in the US in May 2022, in the European Union in September 2022, in Canada in November 2022, and in Australia in December 2022. The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) considers it a first-in-class medication. The FDA approved it for weight loss in November 2023. Also in November 2023, the UK Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency revised the indication for tirzepatide (as Mounjaro) to include weight management and weight loss. In December 2024, the FDA revised the indication for tirzepatide (as Zepbound) to include the treatment of moderate-to-severe obstructive sleep apnea.
Baclofen, sold under the brand name Lioresal among others, is a central nervous system (CNS) depressant and derivative of the inhibitory neurotransmitter, gamma-Aminobutyric acid (GABA). Baclofen is a potent GABAB receptor agonist, antispasmodic, and skeletal muscle relaxant used to treat chronic muscle spasms and muscle spasticity, such as from a spinal cord injury or multiple sclerosis. It may also be used for hiccups and muscle spasms near the end of life, and off-label to treat alcohol use disorder or opioid withdrawal symptoms. It is taken orally or by intrathecal pump (delivered into the spinal canal via an implantable pump device). Baclofen should be avoided in the setting of chronic kidney disease and end stage renal disease as even small doses can cause excessive toxicity. Common side effects include sleepiness, weakness, and dizziness. Serious side effects, such as seizures and rhabdomyolysis, may occur if use of baclofen is stopped abruptly. Use during pregnancy is of unclear safety, whilst use during breastfeeding is likely safe, and even more so if oral administration is avoided. The adverse effects and safety profile associated with baclofen when it is combined with sedative drugs (e.g., alcohol, barbiturates, and benzodiazepines) range depending on the dose and the individual. The interaction may increase the sedative effects of all ingested sedatives and as such is not generally recommended. In high doses the interaction with alcohol can cause de novo seizures. Baclofen was approved for medical use in the United States in 1977.
== Medical use == According to phase III randomized trials, a cangrelor–clopidogrel combination is safe and has been found to be more effective than standard clopidogrel treatment at reducing ischemic events in the heart, without increasing major bleeding in the treatment of stenotic coronary arteries. The advantages of this drug combination are most prominent in patients with myocardial infarction. Available antiplatelet drugs have delayed onset and offset of action. Since cangrelor's effects are immediate and quickly reversed, it is a more desirable drug for elective treatment of stenotic coronary arteries, high risk acute coronary syndromes treated with immediate coronary stenting, and for bridging those surgery patients who require P2Y12 inhibition. Evidence regarding cangrelor therapy is limited by the lack studies assessing cangrelor administration in conjunction with either prasugrel or ticagrelor. Cangrelor been approved for adults undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI).
G6P is then rearranged into fructose 6-phosphate (F6P) by glucose phosphate isomerase. Fructose can also enter the glycolytic pathway by phosphorylation at this point. The change in structure is an isomerization, in which the G6P has been converted to F6P. The reaction requires an enzyme, phosphoglucose isomerase, to proceed. This reaction is freely reversible under normal cell conditions. However, it is often driven forward because of a low concentration of F6P, which is constantly consumed during the next step of glycolysis. Under conditions of high F6P concentration, this reaction readily runs in reverse. This phenomenon can be explained through Le Chatelier's Principle. Isomerization to a keto sugar is necessary for carbanion stabilization in the fourth reaction step (below).
== Science and technology == Did, Bowers acronym for a dodecadodecahedron Data item descriptions, a specification used by United States Department of Defense contractors Decentralized identifier, a type of globally unique identifier Difference in differences, a statistical technique Direct inward dialing, in telephony Discharge ionization detector, a detector in gas chromatography
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Selank is a seven-amino-acid peptide built from the tuftsin sequence plus a Pro-Gly-Pro tail. It is produced by chemical synthesis rather than extracted from a natural source. The free peptide is usually supplied as a lyophilised powder or in an aqueous formulation.
Tuftsin is a natural tetrapeptide derived from the Fc portion of immunoglobulin G. Selank retains that tetrapeptide at its N-terminus and adds three residues to improve resistance to enzymatic breakdown. The relationship is structural, and the two molecules are not interchangeable in experimental work.
It holds a product registration in Russia for intranasal use as an anxiolytic. Registrations of that kind are not automatically accepted by regulators elsewhere. In most other countries it is treated as an unapproved substance or a research material.
Dry powder is best kept sealed, protected from light, and held at minus 20 degrees Celsius or below. Desiccant packaging helps limit moisture uptake because the material is hygroscopic. A sealed vial should be allowed to equilibrate to room temperature before opening to reduce condensation.